Influences / Importance / Religious Aspects / Calendar / Modern / Egyptian / Back to Unit 1 Calendar
Myths
There are several Greek myths about how the games were started. The
most common myth was the story of the hero Pelops, after whom the
Peloponnese is named ("the isle of Pelops"). The story of Pelops was displayed
prominently on the east pedimental sculptures of the Temple of Zeus. Pelops
was a prince from Lydia in Asia Minor who sought the hand of Hippodamia,
the daughter of King Oinomaos of Pisa. Oinomaos challenged his daughter's
suitors to a chariot race under the guarantee that any young man who won
the chariot race could have Hippodamia as a wife. Any young man who lost
the race would be beheaded, and the heads would be used as decoration for
the palace of Oinomaos. With the help of his charioteer Myrtilos, Pelops
devised a plan to beat Oinomaos in the chariot race. Pelops and Myrtilos
secretly replaced the bronze linchpins of the King's chariot with linchpins
made of wax. When Oinomaos was about to pass Pelops in the chariot race,
the wax melted and Oinomaos was thrown to his death. Pelops married Hippodamia
and instituted the Olympic games to celebrate his victory. A different
version of the myth refers to the Olympic games as funeral games in the
memory of Oinomaos.
Another myth about the origin of the Olympic Games comes from the Tenth
Olympian Ode of the poet Pindar. He tells the story of how Herakles,
on his fifth labor, had to clean the stables of King Augeas of Elis. Herakles
approached Augeas and promised to clean the stables for the price of one-tenth
of the king's cattle. Augeas agreed, and Herakles rerouted the Kladeos
and Alpheos rivers to flow through the stables. Augeas did not fulfill
his promise, however, and after Herakles had finished his labors he returned
to Elis and waged war on Augeas. Herakles sacked the city of Elis and instituted
the Olympic Games in honor of his father, Zeus. It is said that Herakles
taught men how to wrestle and measured out the stade, or the length of
the footrace.
Influences
Bull-leaping scenes appear in Minoan art as early as 2000 BC. Scenes
with acrobats leaping or somersaulting over bulls appear on engraved seals,
palatial frescoes, and ivory and bronze figurines. The scenes are likened
to a circus: the acrobats are portrayed as "flying" over the backs or heads
of bulls. Boxing scenes also appear in Minoan art, though not as often
as bull-leaping scenes. The boxing figures often have a clenched fist,
and are sometimes shown wearing hand-coverings, ancient "boxing gloves."
There is also architectural evidence for sport in Minoan Crete. The four
major Minoan Palaces (Knossos, Phaestos, Mallia, and Zakro) had theatral
areas with L-shaped seating areas that could have held up to 500 spectators,
and the central courts of the palaces would have been ideal for bull-leaping:
the flat, rectangular area would have been separated from the spectator
areas by a fence and in some palaces there is evidence for a hallway leading
into the central court that could have been used for leading the bull to
the site of the bull-leaping. In addition, the representation of
grandstands in the famous "Grandstand Fresco" from the palace of Knossos,
which depicts a group of seated women watching an event in front of them
(the performers are not in the fresco), is strangely similar to the setup
of the theatral areas or central courts of the palaces: there are columns
as well as pillars, and the action seems to be going on outdoors. Although
Minoan influence on Greek sport may have been direct (through the assimilation
of Cretan peoples with the Mycenaeans), the Egyptian influences may have
depended on the Minoans. There is undeniable proof that the Minoans had
extensive contact with Egypt (mainly in the context of
trade), and the Egyptians may have influenced Minoan sport and, therefore,
Greek sport as well. Although the Mycenaeans were the chronological link
between the Minoans and the Greeks, there is little evidence of sport in
Mycenaean society. In addition, when evaluating the cultures which contributed
toward the ancient Greek appreciation of sport, one must combine the Egyptian
and Minoan influences with possible Dorian influences. The Dorians, or
"invaders from the north," may have added an aggressive competitive spirit
to the Egyptian and Minoan appreciation of games and the human body. Top
The Importance of Ancient Greek Athletics
The ancient Greeks were highly competitive and believed strongly in the concept of agon, or "competition," "contest." The ultimate Greek goal was to be the best. All aspects of life, especially athletics, were centered around this concept. It was therefore considered one of the greatest honors to win a victory at Olympia. The fact that the only prize given at Olympia was an olive wreath illustrates this point. The athletes competed for honor, not for material goods. Athletics were of prime importance to the Greeks. The education of boys concentrated on athletics and music as well as academic subjects such as philosophy. Education took place in the gymnasion and the palaistra as well as the academy.
The Religious Aspects of the Ancient Olympic Games
In ancient Greece, games were closely connected to the worship of the gods and heroes. Games were held as part of religious ceremonies in honor of deceased heroes, a concept displayed in the funeral games for Patroklos in Book 23 of Homer's epic poem, The Iliad. Games were also held in the context of many ancient fertility festivals. The games at Olympia were connected with both the funeral games of Oinomaos, established by Pelops, and a fertility cult involving any number of gods and goddesses who were worshipped at the site. The Olympic games began to be usurped by the prominent cult of Zeus, and eventually lost much of their religious character.
The Olympic Games and the Greek Calendar
The Greek calendar was based on the conception of the four-year Olympiad. When Greek historians referred to dates, they most often referred to a year (i.e., first, second, third, fourth) within the Olympiad that the event occurred. The winner of the stade race in a given year had the Olympiad named in honor of him. The first Olympiad is therefore known as that of Koroibos of Elis, the winner of the stade in 776 BC.
The Sacred Truce
The sacred truce, or ekcheiria, was instituted during the month of
the Olympiad. Messengers known as spondorophoroi carried the word of the
truce and announced the date of the games all over the Greek world. The
truce called for a cessation of all hostilities for a period of one month
(later three months) to allow for the safe travel of athletes to and from
Olympia. Amies and armed individuals were barred from entering the sanctuary.
In addition, no death penalties could be carried out during the period
of the truce. Top
The Internationalization
of the Olympic Games
From the beginning, the games at Olympia served to strengthen the Greek
sense of national unity. During the Hellenistic period, Greeks who came
to live in foreign surroundings such as Syria, Asia, and Egypt, strove
to hold on to their culture. One of the ways they did this was to build
athletic facilities and continue their athletic traditions. They organized
competitions, and sent competitors from their towns to compete in the Panhellenic
games. In the 2nd century A.D., Roman citizenship was extended to everyone
within the Roman empire. After this point there were many competitors from
outside of Greece, and the Olympic games became more internationalized.
When the Greek government reinstated the games in 1896, this international
character of the competitions was preserved by Baron de Coubertin . Now,
16 centuries later, the Olympic games attract competitors from countries
all over the world.
Other Panhellenic Festivals
The Olympic Games were the first, but not the only Panhellenic festival to be held in ancient Greece. In 586 BC, the Pythian Games were established at Delphi, followed by the Isthmian Games in 582 and the Nemean Games in 573. Together, these four contests formed an athletic circuit known as the periodos, literally "the road around". The Olympic Games and the Pythian Games were held every four years, and the Isthmian and Nemean Games were held every two years. However, the Isthmian Games were held in April, and the Nemean Games were held in late July, so that they never conflicted.
Year Olympiad Event
776 BC 1st Olympiad stade race
724 BC 14th Olympiad double-stade race
720 BC 15th Olympiad long-distance race
708 BC 18th Olympiad pentathlon
708 BC 18th Olympiad wrestling
688 BC 23rd Olympiad boxing
680 BC 25th Olympiad 4-horse chariot race
648 BC 33rd Olympiad horse race
648 BC 33rd Olympiad pankration
520 BC 65th Olympiad race in armor
408 BC 93rd Olympiad 2-horse chariot race
Egyptian Top
The body of evidence for sport and game in ancient dynastic Egypt comes
from tomb paintings and
tomb finds, notably the tomb at Beni-Hassan, private tombs at Thebes,
and the famous tomb of King Tutankhamon. The paintings on the walls of
the tomb at Beni-Hassan in particular illustrate acrobatics, hop &
jump, ball games, and wrestling. Although "play" is a natural aspect of
human life, there is evidence for the overwhelming popularity of sport
and games in the ancient Mediterranean. In ancient Egypt, acrobats, who
displayed physical agility and strength, were mainly viewed as performers.
Most Egyptian acrobats were women, and they performed alone or in groups.
Young Egyptian boys also participated in acrobatics, and played games with
hoops. There are 200 wrestling groups depicted on one wall of the tomb
at Beni-Hassan. The wrestlers wear a loin-cloth similar to the cod-piece
or loin-cloth of Minoan athletes. Although the scenes portray the various
positions and "holds" involved in wrestling, the sport was practiced as
part of Egyptian military training, and there is no evidence of organized
competition. Ancient Egyptians also participated in various running activities.
One of the kingdom's most important festivals was the "jubilee celebration,"
a festival first celebrated on the 30th anniversary of the reign of Amenophis
III, and celebrated continuously in three-year intervals. In the "ritual
run", an integral part of the celebration, the current king would run between
two sets of three semicircles, the semicircles being cosmic references
to the order of the universe. Unlike later Greek footraces, however, the
Egyptian king ran alone, without a competitor. Physical evidence of the
"ritual run"
exists at the pyramid complex of King Djoser, where one can find the
ruins of the world's first sports facility, complete with the running track
for the "ritual run." Two other examples of "public sport" in ancient Egypt
target archery and chariot riding. Target archers used a bow (considered
both a weapon and hunting tool) to launch arrows. Ancient bows survive
from the tomb of King Tutankhamon. Chariots "arrived" in the Near East
during the second millennium BC. There is no evidence of chariot racing,
however. Instead, charioteers were aristocrats who enjoyed the glamour
and honor attached to riding a chariot, and strove to perfect the art of
driving a chariot. Six chariots survive from the tomb of King Tutankhamon.
There are no artistic representations of chariots, just physical remains,
and the first artistic representations of chariot driving and racing are
from Mycenaean art.
The Egyptians also participated in "private sport." "Private sports"
included running, jumping (seldom as a discipline, rather in the context
of children's games), wrestling (in pairs of competitors), stick fighting,
boxing, swimming, and rowing. Although there is little Egyptian evidence
for organized, competitive games or sports, the Egyptian culture may have
influenced the development of Greek games in terms of an appreciation for
the
athletic human body, the value of games in the context of performance.