Currently, more than fifty percent of the words in our language are of Latin origin. English is not the only modem language influenced by the ancient language of Latin. It is the foundation for the French, Spanish, and Italian languages and many of its words have been incorporated into other languages. As a language, Latin possessed qualities of clarity and order that made it suitable not only for literature, but as a vehicle for the structured phrasing and discipline which were requisites for the formal language of church and government documents. The discipline of the language may account for the fact that the usually practical and often unimaginative Romans developed the form of literature we call satire. The purpose of satire is to poke fun at a person or event. The target of satire in the later years of the empire was Roman society, and the writer Juvenal developed the genre to a high degree with his merciless criticism of Rome as decadent and depraved. Satire needs precise words and phrasing to make it strike home effectively.

Latin as a language is no longer spoken, but it endures now, as it has for centuries, through the writings of Roman historians and poets. Vergil's the Aeneid, an epic poem about the founding of Rome by refugees from Greek- destroyed Troy, effectively blends myth and fact. It became a standard handbook for every student in the empire. Today it is appreciated by scholars for its literary excellence and grandeur of scope. Much of what we know of early Rome, especially its military expeditions, has been learned by reading the historians Tacitus, Sallust, Julius Caesar, and others. These three, especially, created works which were written with keen observation, attention to detail, and often, with personal style and flair.

Like the language of the Romans, Roman law also had a profound influence, Because it expanded with the empire to govern all with equal justice, Roman law helped the government rule different cultures and a variety of separate communities. Based upon tolerance and rationality, the law of the Romans reflected their genius for abstracting general principles from experience. The first code of law for Rome was called the Twelve Tables, and was written about 450 B.C. As the empire grew the law expanded, was rewritten to reflect the newer customs and the Stoic teachings, and took on a note of clarity and universality that would set a standard for the empire, its subjects, and the world of the future.

Magistrates, called praetors were permitted flexibility in interpreting the law according to the situation of the case, rather than being bound by a rigid pronouncement for all cases. Because such interpretations were models used by other praetors, they became established legal precedents. As Rome continued to dominate ever greater portions of the world and law cases grew in number, skilled lawyers would aid and advise. and they began to specialize in interpretation, especially in cases arising among non-citizens of Rome. This was the beginning of modern equity law and the concept was incorporated into the Roman legal system. As a result, Roman law was based on precedent, but made flexible by a sense of equity and influenced by the humanitarianism of the Stoic philosophy, Recodification of the law began in the sixth century A.D. with the Justinian Code, sectioned In four parts; imperial edicts, greatest decisions of lawyers. manuals of legal principles for the schools, and finally. a series of new laws added by Justinian. The four parts were named, in order, the Code, the Digest, the Institutes, and the Novels. The Digest, formed over the greatest number of years, was the most lasting and became the basis for law in successive centuries. 

For law and language to extend throughout the Roman Empire, control first had to be maintained. Order and rule had to be unequivocally established and the responsibility for this fell to the legions of Rome. The legion was a new type of military formation designed by the Romans and far superior to the previous, more rigid military formations of other civilized people. A legion consisted of 3,000 to 5,000 fighting men, divided into centuries because their number was usually about 100. Each century was headed by a leader who was called a centurion. Regular troops or legionnaires were at first recruited from the most Romanized provinces, as well as from Roman citizen-farmers. They served for twenty years and received regular pay and a bonus upon retirement. Auxiliary troops were drawn from the less Romanized provinces, served for twenty-five years and were given Roman citizenship upon retirement. Back to Top

Strength of body and character made Romans good soldiers. Strict discipline enabled them to march for days, subsisting on little food and water, and trained them to obey orders to the death without thought of retreat or surrender. A regular soldier was recruited early. A father stressed the qualities of a good soldier to his son as he trained him for the obligations of citizenship and usually for management of the farm, for the soldiers of the early republic were often drawn from the farming communities. Every early Republican Roman male was required to serve in the army. Carrying a sixty-pound pack, providing his own equipment of helmet, shield, sword, and iron-tipped javelin, he brought also a commitment of unquestioning loyalty to his service. A soldier could be punished severely if he lost his equipment in battle, breached any morality such as lying or stealing, or boasted of deeds performed in battle, He knew that he brought honor to his family when he was rewarded for his honorable senice, and so a soldier tried never to bring disgrace to himself, which would also reflect on his family. The unfortunate soldier who, for example fell asleep during guard duty would be beaten or stoned by his fellow soldiers. Beyond that, he would be so disgraced that he could never return home. The high standard of the Roman regular soldier was matched by that of capable generals, and so the Romans soon became the world's best fighting force.

The legionnaires were well-bathed, well-fed, well-trained, and when not fighting, were employed to build roads, camps, aqueducts, and fortifications. A high sense of pride was maintained by all individual Roman soldiers, in particular for their legionary service records. Because of their duties other than fighting, the legions served as agents spreading the Roman culture and language to the outlying provinces from their garrisons. If the legion had a weakness, it might have been said to be water. Romans were superb fighters, but poor sailors. Though they improved the design of fighting ships by adding boarding bridges, enabling them to board an enemy ship and fight hand to hand on its decks, many never made it across the bridges. More Roman soldiers drowned during the First Punic War than were killed in any naval war.

Using the reading on Language, Law and Legions, answer the following questions:

1. What percentage of English words are of Latin origin? What other three languages have been greatly influenced by Latin?

2. What qualities does the language possess? What was the language particularly suited for?

3. What form of precise literature did the Romans invent? Who was its greatest practitioner and how did he depict Rome in his literary pieces?

4, What great poetic work was used by all students throughout the empire? Who wrote it?

5. What three men were famous historians?

6. What was the goal of Roman law? What was it based upon?

7. What was the first Roman law code? What philosophy heavily influenced it? What aspects did it possess which set the standard for the Roman empire and the future?

8. Who interpreted the laws? Their interpretations became what for succeeding cases and generations? (What are they called)

9. What group of specialists developed as law cases grew in number? What concept was incorporated into the legal system, even applying to non-citizens? Roman law thus became based on what? This, in turn, was made flexible by what two aspects?

10. What was the name of the famous Code written in the sixth century A,D.? What were its four parts and the names of these parts? Which section was the longest lasting in influence?

11. What was a centurion? a legion?

12. How did auxiliary troops differ from the regular troops? What were the qualifications for and benefits of being a legionnaire?

13. What three main characteristics was a regular member of the legion expected to have?

14. How was soldiering related to regular Roman family life?

15. What did each soldier have to provide?

16. For what offenses could a legionnaire be punished? What must a legionnaire always uphold?

17. What three "wells" applied to how a legionnaire was always treated?. What other duties did a Roman soldier have when he was not fighting?

18. What was the one weakness of the Roman military? How did the Romans try to remedy this?

19. From your text reading, recall the Roman soldier who became the "First Counsel", but first wrote a detailed account of his expeditionary force to a barbarian country, Gaul. Who was this great general who became the target for conspirators on the Ides of March?

1. Fifty percent; French, Spanish, Italian

2. Clarity, order, structured phrasing and discipline required for formal language of church and government documents

3. Satire, Juvenile, as decadence and depraved

4. The Aeneid, Virgil

5. Tacitus, Sallust, Julius Caesar

6. Govern all with equal justice; tolerance and rationality

7. Twelve Tablets; Stoicism; clarity and universality

8. magistrates called praetors; established legal precedents

9. Lawyers; equity law; precedent; sense of equity and humanitarianism of the Stoic philosophy

10. Justinian Code; Code-imperial edicts Digest-greatest decisions of lawyers, Institutes-manuals of legal principles for the school, Novels-new laws added by Justinian The Digest influenced law the most

11. Leader of a squad of about 100 men a new military formation of 3,000 to 5,0000 men divided into centuries

12. legionnaire-recruited from most Romanized provinces and from Roman citizen, farmers-served for twenty years and received regular pay and a bonus upon retirement; auxiliary soldier-from less Romanized provinces, served for 25 years and got Roman citizenship upon retirement

13. Strength of body and character, and discipline

14. Father stressed being a good soldier to his son and trained him for the obligations of citizenship, many soldiers came from farming communities, every male in early Republican period had to serve

15. Sixty pound pack, helmet, shield, sword javelin and unquestioning loyalty

16. If he lost equipment during a battle, falling asleep during guard duty, honor

17. Well-bathed, well-fed and well-trained Built roads, camps, aqueducts and fortifications

18. it was not very good fighting on water ; added boarding bridges on boats so could fight hand to hand

19. Julius Caesar